International Journal of Legal and Social Order
In the context of the sustainable development of the field of law, carrying out research studies from the perspective of interdisciplinary and/or comparative law contributes to the understanding of the legislative process, legal professions, existing mechanisms in justice, jurisprudence in various state fields. Thus, we do not propose that the studies that we will publish over time contribute to the common planetary effort to ensure a climate of safety and freedom around us, in the sense that they do not refer to several objectives contained in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, namely : Object 16 "Peace, Justice and Effective Institutions", Object 4 "Quality Education", Object 3 "Health and Welfare". Objective: The International Journal of Legal and Social Order (IJLSO) has as its general objective the publication of articles in the field of law aimed at international visibility both through the scientific profile of the authors and through the subject we want to be elaborated both from a legal perspective, and how much of education through the theoretical and/or practical component of preventing and/or combating delinquent acts/crimes. At the same time, we aim to publish articles in the field of law, pursuing international visibility both through the scientific profile of the authors and through the topics addressed, which we do not try to select according to the interest they present to the international scientific community. IJLSO appears under the auspices of the SARA Law Research Center through the care of the magazine's board members. Please get that there is no charge for participating in registering, publishing, reading or downloading articles. The International Journal of Legal and Social Order is owned and funded by the SARA Legal Research Center. DISCLAIMER: The authors of the article appearing in the International Journal of Legal and Social Order are/are solely responsible for its content. Frequency: 1 show per year (December of the director year) Journal in English. There are no fees for publishing or reading the full article. No 1/2025 IJLSO will include articles by which the authors will research topics that can be included in the revised sections. Section: Law Protection of human personality by criminal means. current regulations on trafficking and exploitation of vulnerable persons, as well as crimes against sexual freedom and integrity. Legal rules and technical standards in the process of integration of artificial intelligence in law Old customary law - legal theory and history from a comparative perspective The role of customary law in light of the challenges in today's society The referendum and its political accountability potentialities in current representative democracies Online fraud and cyber crime Public administration in the field of procedural rights of accused persons in criminal proceedings Public administration in the background of the sustainable development of Romania and European Union countries Personal safety. The social capital. Legal framework, financial resources and efficient institutional construction Justice and good governance for efficient institutions Section: Social order Intelligence and security Limiting the phenomenon of poverty and social exclusion optimizing the quality of life Predictive analysis in behavioral psychology - applications in polygraph assessment, personality assessment and antisocial tendencies Co-editori pentru numărul 1/2025, IJLSO: Habilitate Professor PhD. Elena-Ana IANCU, Centrul de Cercetare în Drept SARA/Universitatea „Aurel Vlaicu” din Arad, România Professor PhD. Maria D'ARIENZO, University of Naples “Federico II”, Faculty of Law, Italy Co-editors for issue 1/2024, IJLSO: Professor Dr. Habil. IANCU Elena-Ana, SARA Law Research Center/"Aurel Vlaicu" University in Arad, Romania Dr. PAVEL Tal, Founder and Director - Institute for Cyber ​​Policy Studies, Israel ISSN 2810 – 4188 (Tipărit) ISSN 2821 – 4161 (Online) ISSN-L 2810 – 4188 IJLSO este indexat în: Index Copernicus/ICI Journals Master List baza de date pentru 2024 Google Scholar Metrics <a href="https://kvk.bibliothek.kit.edu/hylib-bin/kvk/nph-kvk2.cgi?maske=kvk-redesign&lang=de&title=KIT-Bibliothek%3A+Karlsruher+Virtueller+Katalog+KVK+%3A+Ergebnisanzeige&head=asset%2Fhtml%2Fhead.html&header=asset%2Fhtml%2Fheader.html&spacer=asset%2Fhtml%2Fspacer.html&footer=asset%2Fhtml%2Ffooter.html&input-charset=utf-8&ALL=International+Journal+of+Legal+and+Social+Order&TI=&AU=&CI=&ST=&PY=&SB=&SS=&PU=&kataloge=BVB&kataloge=HEBIS&kataloge=KOBV_SOLR&kataloge=STABI_BERLIN&kataloge=TIB&ref=kit-bib-home&client-js=yes">KVK Bibliotecile Stanford Gatewway-Bayern University Biblioteka GENT UC Berkeley Law Library University of Saskatchewan Co-editori pentru numărul 1/2025, IJLSO: Habilitate Professor PhD. Elena-Ana IANCU, Centrul de Cercetare în Drept SARA/Universitatea „Aurel Vlaicu” din Arad, România Professor PhD. Maria D'ARIENZO, University of Naples “Federico II”, Faculty of Law, Italy Co-editors for issue 1/2024, IJLSO: IANCU Elena-Ana, SARA Law Research Center/"Aurel Vlaicu" University in Arad, Romania PAVEL Tal, Founder and Director - Institute for Cyber ​​Policy Studies, Israel Co-editors for issue 1/2023, IJLSO: IANCU Elena-Ana, SARA Law Research Center/"Aurel Vlaicu" University in Arad, Romania CARBONE Vincenzo, UNINT University of International Studies in Rome, Italy Co-editors for issue 1/2022, IJLSO: IANCU Elena-Ana, SARA Law Research Center/"Aurel Vlaicu" University in Arad, Romania VARADI-CSEMA Erika, University of Miskolc, Faculty of Law
ENGAGEMENT BETWEEN TRADITION AND MODERNITY
For the life of a couple, engagement represents a stage preceding marriage, being the solemn promise to found a family. For the life of a couple, engagement represents a stage preceding marriage, being the solemn promise to found a family. In the traditional collective mentality, its value is supported by the social function, being in fact an understanding between families, as basic elements of the local community. In modern society, the social character of engagement has faded greatly, its role being mainly to externalize the marriage commitment, to express the feelings of the future spouses. The institution of engagement is regulated normatively, after years of lack of interest on the part of the legislator, but it has proven lenient with the sanctions applied, so that engagement is an institution known and loved by all, but too little protected, so that it does not have a more symbolic character.
Copyright (c) 2025 International Journal of Legal and Social Order https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
ASPECTS REGARDING OVER-INDEBTEDNESS PREVENTION FOR VULNERABLE CONSUMERS
Against the backdrop of national and european concerns for the prevention of over-indebtedness, this study aims to develop, among the procedures intended to help in this regard, the procedure established by banks for vulnerable consumers unable to execute the credit agreement. Two categories of consumers, considered vulnerable, are covered by this procedure, together with the Code of Conduct for banks, established at national level, namely, consumers in payment difficulties or representing a social case. The analysis of the principles governing the procedure, its effects on the relationship between the bank (creditor) and the consumer (debtor) in this stage, as well as a schematic guide, useful for facilitating its application by banks, are the theme of this study.
INTERNATIONAL JUDICIAL COOPERATION IN THE APPLICATION OF LAW NO. 143/2000 ON THE PREVENTION AND COMBATING OF ILLICIT DRUG TRAFFICKING AND CONSUMPTION
International judicial cooperation plays an important role in the enforcement of Law No. 143/2000 on the prevention and combating of illicit drug trafficking and consumption, in particular the modern legal instruments used in the European and international context. The main cooperation mechanisms are presented—extradition, the European arrest warrant, letters rogatory, the European investigation order, and mutual recognition of confiscation orders—and the importance of police cooperation and information exchange through Europol, Interpol, and SELEC is highlighted. Thus, current challenges related to legislative differences, data protection, and the complexity of evidence in transnational cases can hinder cooperation. Future trends, such as the digitization of cooperation procedures, the possible extension of the competence of the European Public Prosecutor's Office (EPPO), and the reorientation of criminal policy towards alternative measures and public health policies, are solutions to ensure a faster, more effective, and balanced response to drug trafficking.
NEWS ON CRIMINAL LIABILITY FOR OFFENSES RELATED TO DRUGS AND PRODUCTS SUSCEPTIBLE TO HAVING PSYCHOACTIVE EFFECTS, OTHER THAN THOSE PROVIDED FOR BY THE REGULATIONS IN FORCE
Recent reforms in criminal liability for drug and psychoactive substance offenses show a clear trend toward tougher criminal policy, combining repressive measures with rehabilitation and prevention tools. Increased penalties for traffickers, the introduction of aggravating circumstances, and the criminalization of related acts reflect a strategy of reduced tolerance for the phenomenon, while mandatory treatment and psychological counseling programs mark a step toward addressing public health in the context of addiction. However, the intensity and frequency of legislative changes may affect legal certainty and consistency in law enforcement. Repeatedly tightening sanctions and restricting access to alternative measures risks exacerbating prison overcrowding and creating an imbalance between the repressive and rehabilitative aims of the law. A sustainable criminal policy must ensure the proportionality of penalties, the effective implementation of reintegration programs, and the predictability of the regulatory framework in order to maintain confidence in justice and reduce the incidence of crime in the long term.
ADMINISTRATIVE AND TAX PRINCIPLES: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS FROM A HUNGARIAN PERSPECTIVE
Since the separation of general administrative and tax administration procedures in Hungary, fundamental principles have been given particular emphasis in all areas. Although the General Administrative Procedure Act aimed to streamline processes and reduce the volume of regulations, it nevertheless placed significant importance on these principles, some of which are derived directly from the Fundamental Law of Hungary. The entire tax administration procedure is also permeated by an emphasis on these principles. This study compares the fundamental principles of the two areas. To this end, it first presents the general functions and common theoretical framework of the principles, then systematically examines the principles of both procedural regimes and finally draws conclusions from the comparison.
REFLECTIONS ON THE HISTORY OF ROMANIAN FINANCIAL LAW
From the very outset of the present scientific undertaking, it must be emphasized that, given the wealth of information and the inherent complexity of the financial field, concerns related to the development of financial science were — and continue to be — fully justified. A study on the history of the broad domain of financial law allows for a deeper understanding and interpretation of its evolution, the topic being both current and relevant, as the history of financial law is closely connected to the evolution of the State and of the economic system
FROM PAPER TO DIGITAL: ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE AND RECORD IN THE CONTEXT OF ROMANIAN LEGAL REGULATIONS
The transition from traditional written forms to electronic communication has accelerated in recent years, particularly due to the expansion of teleworking and the widespread use of remotely concluded contracts. These developments necessitated a coherent legal framework governing the creation, transmission, and evidentiary value of electronic documents and electronic signatures. Romania aligned early with European trends and progressively modernized its legislation to ensure the authenticity, integrity, and legal certainty of digital documents. A decisive step in this evolution is represented by Law No. 214/2024, which harmonizes national rules with the eIDAS Regulation and introduces essential updates to the Code of Civil Procedure. The new law modernizes and unifies previous regulations, adapting them to the current technological context and facilitating the interoperability of digital solutions at the European level. This study presents the evolution of European and Romanian regulations applicable to electronic documents and electronic signatures, emphasizing the implications for judicial practice and the challenges courts have encountered during this transition. The paper highlights the need for a technologically neutral and predictable legal framework capable of supporting the digitalization of civil procedures and private law relations while safeguarding fundamental procedural rights.
THE ECOCIDE BETWEEN THE ETHICAL IDEAL AND THE LEGAL REALITY
Ecocide—the large-scale destruction of ecosystems by the human agent—has gained increasing prominence as an ethical and legal concern in the Anthropocene era. In this paper we explore ecocide at the intersection of moral philosophy and international law, examining how the ethical imperatives of environmental management have faced the limitations of codification and legal application. Drawing on conceptual and doctrinal analysis, in this paper we analyze the normative evolution of ecocide as an emerging international crime, tracing its roots in moral discourse, post-war humanitarian law, and contemporary climate governance. By integrating ethical theories – such as ecological justice, utilitarian environmental ethics, and deontological duty to non-human life – with legal developments from the Rome Statute to the amendments proposed by the Group of Independent Experts (2021), this study identifies a growing gap between ethical aspiration and legal achievement. Comparative and policy analyses show that, despite the growing recognition of environmental damage as a cross-border moral error, international law remains hampered by sovereignty, evidence and political barriers. Through illustrative case studies, including deforestation in the Amazon, oil pollution in the Niger Delta, and environmental damage during the war in Ukraine, this paper elucidates how moral outrage often outweighs legal responsibility. The conclusion calls for a more ethically grounded jurisprudence that reconciles human and ecological rights, transforming ecocide from an aspirational ideal into a concrete legal norm. The concept of ecocide — literally, "killing the house" (from Greek) — emerged in the 1970s amid debates about the environmental devastation of the Vietnam War. However, despite decades of moral support, ecocide remains largely absent from binding international law.
HIGH-RISK AI SYSTEMS IN THE LIGHT OF THE REGULATION (EU) 2024/1689 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE POTENTIAL HARMFUL IMPACT ON PERSONALITY RIGHTS
This article aims to analyze artificial intelligence systems, classified by the newly adopted EU AI ACT as high-risk, with a focus on their potential to infringe on personal rights. The growing role of artificial intelligence seems to be increasingly shaping the times we live in, and its influence is becoming increasingly evident, both at the individual and societal levels. Its applications are increasingly varied, as are the users of these tools, and access to them is becoming easier. The initial resistance to implementing systems based on various forms of artificial intelligence seems to be diminishing as the benefits of using these systems become increasingly apparent, often relieving individuals of truly burdensome tasks. The use of artificial intelligence has become so widespread that it is difficult to find an area that has not yet been "contaminated" by the influence of AI.In this general context, one of the main issues that should concern us is the risks generated by the use of these systems, as well as the ways in which we can limit, if not eliminate, their potentially harmful effects. At European level, an extremely important step in this direction was taken with the adoption of the REGULATION (EU) 2024/1689 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence and amending Regulations (EC) No 300/2008, (EU) No 167/2013, (EU) No 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1139 and (EU) 2019/2144 and Directives 2014/90/EU, (EU) 2016/797 and (EU) 2020/1828 (Artificial Intelligence Act), as we will refer to throughout the paper, regulation which, among other things, introduces a classification of artificial intelligence systems according to the degree of risk they may pose to the fundamental rights of individuals, providing a series of safeguards to reduce their harmful effects on these rights. The article will deal mainly with the high-risk systems and the mechanisms for reducing their harmful potential.
THE DECISION OF THE ROMANIAN CONSTITUTIONAL COURT (RCC) NO. 412 OF 24 SEPTEMBER 2025 – (IN)COMPATIBILITY WITH THE PRINCIPLE OF INDEPENDENCE OF REGULATORY AUTHORITIES PROVIDED FOR BY EUROPEAN LEGISLATION
The study examines the considerations of Decision no. 412/2025 of the Constitutional Court, relating them to the requirements of institutional independence of regulatory authorities, enshrined in the norms and case law of the European Union. The originality of the study lies in its comparative perspective on the Court's reasoning and the Romanian state's obligations under EU law, particularly regarding the protection of the functional, organizational, and financial autonomy of these entities. The analysis highlights the fact that the pronounced solution allows for excessive political interference in the organization and exercise of regulatory powers, which may affect their impartiality and neutrality. It will be emphasized that the lack of adequate guarantees of independence contravenes the standards set out in the sectoral directives and the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union, thereby creating grounds for possible non-conformity of domestic law. The study draws attention to the risk of a conflict of norms, likely to lead to infringement procedures against Romania. The conclusion will support the need for a constitutional interpretation that integrates European standards, ensuring the effectiveness of the principle of autonomy of regulatory authorities and compliance with the commitments assumed by the Romanian state within the Union.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON STRENGTHENING BASIC HUMAN RIGHTS: REASSESSING PROPERTY RIGHTS ENFORCEMENT IN ALBANIA
Technology has emerged as a transformative force in reinforcing fundamental human rights, particularly the right to property as protected under Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Albania’s persistent challenges in enforcing property rights—rooted in post-communist restitution complexities, weak enforcement mechanisms, and administrative opacity—have led to repeated condemnations by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). This paper reassesses Albania’s property rights regime through a technological lens, exploring how digital innovation can enhance transparency, accountability, and access to justice. By analysing landmark ECtHR judgments and Albania’s legal framework, it argues that digitisation of property registries and e-justice mechanisms can address the systemic deficiencies that have hindered effective enforcement. The study concludes that technology, if strategically integrated within Albania’s justice and administrative systems, can serve as a catalyst for fulfilling ECHR obligations and advancing the rule of law as part of the European integration process.
DIGITALISATION – PART OF THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION REFORM
Nowadays, in what concerns the relation with public authorities, the general trend is remote communication, both in terms of obtaining information and in terms of an administrative act. From this perspective, the state of development of society as a whole calls for reform, in the sense of moving away from traditional methods and embracing new approaches to communication, in society in general and in administration in particular. In this background, we learn from the media that a minister created virtually by artificial intelligence has been appointed in a European country. This made us curious to document the topic in order to find out as much as possible about the communication tools of the future. Therefore, the paper addresses a current topic of general interest, discussing the possibility of modernizing public administration by means of digitalisation. Therefore, the intended scope of the paper is to document the topic of digitalisation of public administration, in order to learn as much as possible about it, both from a theoretical and a practical, applied perspective. By using research methods specific to law, the conclusion of the paper will be emphasized, namely that the integration of new technologies into administration is part of existing trends in administration and that this comes as a support for people.
In today’s world, AI seems to have invaded the day to day lives of us humans. At such a break-neck pace we must ask ourselves how will this new advancement in human history influence the most sensible of groups, the children. In this article, we will make an effort to understand how AI is molding and infringing on the most basic of rights and what is currently happening in Machine Learning (LM) development.
THE EFFECTS OF BRITISH COLONIALISM ON THE IRISH LAW OF SUCCESSION
Considering the excesses that had been committed over eight centuries, the Anglo-Irish rivalry had reached grotesque proportions over time. The English sought to exercise total control over the British Isles, but the Irish consistently opposed it, which gave rise to a mutual antipathy in the collective psyche. Ireland had, before it came under English rule, its own system of law, dating back to Celtic times and existing until the 17th century, when English common law replaced it. This was Brehon Law, consisting of customs passed down orally from one generation to another and administered by the Brehons, the successors of the Celtic Druids. Although similar to judges, the Brehons were more of an arbiter (Katharine Simms, 2000, p. 79) whose task was to preserve and interpret the law rather than to extend it. In the early 17th century, the military victory against Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone was decisive, decisive and represented a first stage in the English domination of Ireland. Political consolidation was achieved by legal means and represented the second stage in the process of English domination. These events led to the legislative reform of the early 17th century.[1]Sir John Davies argued that the eradication of Irish Brehon law was justified by the right of conquest and that Brehon law resembled "a barbarous and indecent custom". [1]Sir John Davies, who studied briefly with Paul Merula at Leyden in the Netherlands, was one of the most important Crown lawyers who worked to reform the Irish administration in the early 17th century. He served as Solicitor General and Attorney General and had a significant influence on Irish law, administration and jurisprudence. His legacy is highlighted in his Irish Law Reports.
PUBLIC SECURITY AND COOPERATION BETWEEN STATE AND RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS
The paper examines the collaboration between the State and religious denominations in Italy in the field of public security. It analyzes four key areas: the Catholic Church’s contribution to preventing mafia infiltration; the Holy See’s efforts to combat money laundering through alignment with international standards; the role of Islamic communities in countering terrorism and radicalization; and the reuse of places of worship as tools for integration and social cohesion. The study demonstrates that structured cooperation with religious actors strengthens legality, promotes intercultural dialogue, and supports preventive security policies, highlighting the strategic importance of these partnerships for collective safety and social resilience
MEANS OF PROTECTING VICTIMS OF CRIME AT EUROPEAN LEVEL
In the last half-century, the crystallization of the European Union has also led to the gradual easing of border crossing conditions, so that, along with the possibility of more frequent travel for a large number of people, the phenomenon of crime has also increased, with extensions across the territory of two or even more states. Proportionally, the number of victims of these categories of crime has also increased, victims for whom it is still difficult to gain access to justice or obtain any other type of compensation as a result of the negative events they have experienced. Although considerable efforts are being made at legislative level to cover the rights that a victim should have and avail of, at operational level there are still shortcomings which reduce the chances that victims, especially vulnerable victims, will be able to benefit from specialized legal assistance, compensation for damages or a minimum level of protection.
INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW IN THE CONTEXT OF CURRENT CONFLICTS. THE LOGISTICS IN SPECIAL PROTECTION AREAS
The paper intends to highlight the importance of the referendum in a democratic State and to stress the need that its organization and conduct have to be in accordance with the standards required by a State governed by the rule of law. The role of the Constitutional Court will also be depicted and its case-law will be briefly presented in what concers the most relevant aspects of the referendum as an instrument used by the citizens in order to participate in the decision-making process at the State level.
PRELIMINARY SESSION JUDGE IMPORTANT ACTOR AND GUARANTEE OF DUE JUDICIAL PROCESS AFTER COMPLETION OF PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS PHASE
Constitutional reform (A.Vorpsi, A.Anastasi, G.Ibrahimi, S.Berberi, 2016)and that in Justice (Code of Criminal Procedure, 2017) of 2016 in Albania, brought the need for intervention and changes in the Criminal Procedure Code. A new change in this Code is the figure of the Judge of the Preliminary Session, as a new subject in the criminal process, at the stage of completion of preliminary investigations. This new procedural institute, placed between the prosecutor and the judge of the foundation, serves as a filter to control the procedural actions of the prosecutor, carried out during the phase of the preliminary investigations, if they are complete and final, paving the way for the trial of the case. nȅ foundation. In this work, research, analytical and comparative methods were used, with the aim of highlighting the problems that have to do with the procedural subject of the Judge of the Preliminary Session, as well as the hypotheses with the questions that are asked. The jurisprudence of the cases of judicial practice of the Courts of the General Jurisdiction of the Appeal and of the First Instance, the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Court deal with the competencies and functions of the Judge of the preliminary session as well as the problems that arise during at this stage of the criminal proceedings.
JUDICIAL FACTOR'S PARTICIPATION IN PRELIMINARY PROCEEDINGS – A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE
The subject of the article is the analysis of the role of the judicial element in preparatory proceedings. The author presents the issue of the preparatory proceedings model, addressing historical and comparative aspects. Subsequently, the article discusses various configurations of the judicial element in preparatory proceedings, namely the model with an investigative judge, the model with a judge for preparatory proceedings, and the model involving court participation. The advantages and disadvantages of these models are highlighted, along with examples from selected countries. In conclusion, the author provides a summative evaluation, identifying what they consider the optimal model and procedural solution, and emphasizes the need for a reassessment of current practices.
COMMITTEE OF REGIONS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION IMPACTING LOCAL GOVERNANCE PERFORMANCE THROUGH REGIONAL INITIATIVES
A key organization in the European Union that represents municipal and regional governments is the Committee of Regions (CoR). It uses a number of regional efforts to significantly influence how local governance functions. In the EU policymaking process, the CoR represents the interests of cities and regions. It guarantees that local and regional leaders' opinions are heard regarding laws that impact local governance. The Committee plans training sessions, seminars, and workshops to enhance local governments' capabilities. Through these programs, local authorities are able to acquire the knowledge and abilities necessary for efficient implementation of regional development context. The organization itself influences EU financing programs like the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). The CoR ensures that financial resources are allocated to projects that enhance local infrastructure and governance by exerting influence over the allocation process. Additionally, it encourages municipal authorities to involve individuals in decision-making processes by promoting participatory governance models. Through these initiatives, the Committee of Regions significantly enhances the performance of local governance in the EU. By advocating for local interests, facilitating knowledge exchange and promoting capacity building, the CoR aims ensuring that regional authorities have the proper capacities to meet the challenges they face and improve the quality of life for their citizens. This paper aims to investigate the role of the CoR in local governance through the instrument of regional initiatives. It begins with an overview of the institution's structure, analyzes the regional initiatives that have been successfully implemented thus far and delves deeper into the ways in which the CoR works with other EU institutions to enhance regional initiatives. After conducting a qualitative investigation on the Lisbon Treaty and Committee of Regions web data, our final goal is to pinpoint the creative advancements that this organization has made that have strengthened local governance while also outlining potential further initiatives.
LEGAL INSTRUMENTS AND POLICIES FOR CONSUMER RIGHTS AND SAFETY IN ALBANIA: AN ANALYSIS
Consumer rights are a key element of public law, as they relate to the regulation of economic activities and the protection of individuals in their role as consumers within the market. This scientific paper presents an overview of how consumer rights are integrated and rooted in public law, which includes a regulatory role, state responsibility and preventive measures. Key elements include the right to information, security, choice, rectification and representation. Legal instruments include constitutional protection, legislation and regulatory agencies. Public policy implications include market regulation, public awareness campaigns and international cooperation. Administrative law regulates the relationship between individuals and public authorities, with agencies investigating and penalizing violations of consumer rights and administrative courts providing a platform to challenge regulatory decisions. Customer satisfaction is essential as it encourages repeat purchases, serves as a strong advertisement for the product and reflects the product's values ​​and beliefs.
LEGISLATIVE CHANGES RAGARDING TRAFFICKING AND EXPLOITATION OF VULNERABLE PERSONS – EVOLUTION AND CURRENT JUSTIFICATIONS
The intensification of the phenomenon of exploitation of vulnerable people, the serious ways in which this phenomenon manifests itself, and its cross-border character have led the legislator to intervene on the normative content of some crimes regarding the trafficking and exploitation of vulnerable people in the current Criminal Code, by changing the amount of punishments and by introducing new assimilated variants and aggravating elements – the latest amendments were introduced by Law No. 217 of 10 July 2023, Law No. 202 of 26 June 2024, and Law No. 269 of 30 October 2024. The justification for these legislative amendments referred to the high rate of human trafficking, the large number of children abused and sexually exploited by being forced into prostitution or into acts specific to child pornography, in the online environment, but also to the cross-border nature of human trafficking. Other reasons were also presented, such as: the significant proportion of other forms of exploitation (forced labor, begging); very lenient sentences compared to the seriousness of the crimes of trafficking and exploitation of vulnerable persons; the need to restrict the scope of application of the provisions on the suspension of the execution of the sentence under supervision in the case of slavery, human trafficking and minors trafficking; the lack of differences between the social danger of pimping in its aggravated form and human trafficking; non-uniform judicial practice.
THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUALITY ACCORDING TO CUSTOMARY LAW
The purpose of this paper is to summarize the concepts of customary law and analyze how international customary law functions and how the principle of equality is conceived in customary law. For many centuries in the absence of written constitutions and constitutional laws, the norms which regulated state and social activity were customary norms. Repeated over time and continuously, they had the 'legal' power in a certain territory. Customary law is defined as the set of customs, practices and beliefs that are accepted as mandatory rules of conduct by a community. These practices or rules were also used to regulate relations between different states. Even today, customary law is one of sources of law, in cases where we have legal gaps. What is one of the most delicate issues in social arrangements under the influence of customary law is inequality and discrimination against women. This inequality under the influence of customary law still occurs in different countries of the world. Initially, during the work, the definitions of customary law will be given, continuing further with customary international law. One of the important issues to be elaborated is customary law in Albania and how equality and discrimination are under the influence of the norms of of customary law.
REVIEW OF SOME CRIMINAL JUDGMENTS THAT DO NOT RESOLVE THE SUBSTANCE OF THE CASE - PROCEDURAL MEAN TO ENSURE THE LEGAL ORDER
Among the meanings of the concept of "legal security" is the feeling of confidence of citizens in the correct application and interpretation of the law, as well as in the state's ability to ensure the legal order and, implicitly, public order. One of the requirements arising from the principle of security of legal relations is ensuring access to justice by guaranteeing the right to an effective remedy. In this context, the present study approaches the institution of revision, bringing into attention the possibility of subjecting to re-examination, by exercising this way of attack, definitive criminal judgments that do not resolve the merits of the case. Using, as research methods, observation, documentation, interpretation and comparative scientific analysis (including some European provisions), this paper also discusses some jurisprudential aspects regarding criminal judgments that can be subject to revision, with reference to the recent practice of the supreme court (High Court of Cassation and Justice) in Romania. The objective of the study is to highlight the need to correlate the requirement of ensuring the stability of final criminal judgments with the requirement of guaranteeing access to justice by exercising an effective remedy.
THE MEASURE OF LAW AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE LEGAL MEANING EMBEDDED IN CUSTOMARY LAW
Relying on the phenomenologica approach to the Law the measure of law is problematized as an expression of legal meaning, of its qualities of ambivalence, contradiction, polyvariance, justice. Its genesis is in the customary law. Legal measure is an expression of social dependencies, it contains the pattern of law. It reflects the correct and fair distribution of goods, the expression of legal position subjects on the occasion of goods at a certain stage of human development.
REFERENDUM AS AN INSTRUMENT OF DEMOCRACY IN A STATE GOVERNED BY THE RULE OF LAW: AN ANALISYS THROUGH THE LENS OF THE ROMANIAN CONSTITUTIONAL COURT'S CASE-LAW
THE EVOLUTION OF FACIAL IDENTIFICATION IN THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM
Facial identification has had a crucial role in forensics, helping to modernize justice investigation and administration methods. Starting with Alphonse Bertillon’s anthropometry in the 19th century and implementing complex biometric systems such as the facial identification and recognition System (NBIS), this technology has evolved significantly. We propose to examine the transition from manual methods to automated identification systems, pointing out both their advantages and their limitations, as well as the international collaborations that have eased the global use of biometric data.
TICKET SCALPING – AI GONE TOO FAR? IN SEARCH OF AN OPTIMAL LEGAL SOLUTION
The rise of artificial intelligence (AI) has significantly transformed the ticketing industry, with the proliferation of ticket scalping bots posing a major challenge to fair consumer access. This paper explores the historical context of ticket scalping, its evolution in the digital age, and the legal and technological measures implemented to counteract its adverse effects. The discussion highlights key legislative responses, including the BOTS Act in the United States, the Digital Economy Act in the United Kingdom, and the EU’s Omnibus Directive, assessing their effectiveness in regulating AI-driven scalping practices. Additionally, the paper examines industry-led solutions such as blockchain-based ticketing and personalized tickets, alongside contractual restrictions imposed by event organizers. Through a comparative legal analysis, this study argues for a balanced approach that integrates legislative, technological, and contractual measures to mitigate AI-driven ticket scalping while ensuring fair access for consumers.
THE OFFENCE - CONSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES OR CONTROVERSIES
The legal assessment 11 years after the entry into force of the new Criminal Code allows us to argue that the current regulation has posed important challenges for legal theorists and practitioners, with some regulations being declared unconstitutional, others being modified and supplemented to meet the demands imposed by the new realities. The outlined evolution of Romanian criminal law in the new Criminal Code from the initial moment of its adoption until this date creates the impression of a slightly cracked base for a lasting reform, even if the legislator's intention was to abandon the traditional influence and to follow a normal and natural path of assimilation of European criminal law, in order to actively contribute to the homogenization of the criminal justice system at the level of the European Union. Within the framework of this theoretical approach that we have proposed, we intend to make a brief analysis of the concept of offence, as a fundamental institution of criminal law, which polarizes all the regulations in criminal law. The current Criminal Code defines the concept of offence differently from the previous regulation, abandoning social danger as an essential feature of the offence. The new approach transposed into the provisions of art.15 of the Criminal Code, which we wish to develop, including from the perspective of comparative criminal law, is not immune to criticism, as in judicial practice situations have been identified in which the unconstitutionality of the legal text was invoked, since the content of the typical elements of a offence does not refer to the social danger of the committed act. In relation to these aspects, we propose to demonstrate that the current regulation complies with constitutional and European requirements, even if, from the perspective of the accuracy of the norm, we have objections.
CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE CONSTITUTIONAL PROTECTION OF SEVERAL SOCIAL RIGHTS
The protection of social rights, particularly for vulnerable individuals, represents a fundamental aspect of the contemporary constitutional law across all states. Social rights are among the human fundamental rights and entail the state’s obligation to eliminate economic and social inequalities to ensure the citizens well-being. This paper aims at analysing the protection of social rights at the international level, as well as the European Union as a supranational legal source. In its final section, the paper examines the protection of these rights at the national level, with reference to specific articles of the Romanian Constitution that safeguard citizens’ social rights.
THE NEW SOCIAL REALITY: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE NECESSITY OF ALIGNING NATIONAL LEGISLATION WITH SOCIETAL EVOLUTION
This paper aims to analyse the implications of the development and use of artificial intelligence from both legal and social perspectives, in a context where contemporary society is deeply shaped by digitalization. Beyond the undeniable benefits brought by this emerging technology, a critical reflection is required on how national legislation can—and must—adapt to new technological realities. The study raises a fundamental question: to what extent can technological evolution be pursued without compromising core human values? In this regard, the analysis emphasizes the imperative need for balanced regulation that ensures the protection of fundamental rights while also supporting responsible innovation.
CRIMINAL LAW CHALLENGES CAUSED BY MIGRATION FOR WORK
In the first part of the study, we make reference to migration theories that are enshrined in scientific research, because we consider that a better comprehension of the context in which people choose and decide to migrate (emigrate-immigrate) would bring solidarity to the forefront. We also emphasise the importance of the existence of an appropriate legal framework where public safety, national security and legal security can be ensured. Knowing the forms of communication in intra-institutional and inter-institutional relations and when we are available to investigate our inner selves to find the resources required in order to act on a daily basis to increase the good around us as long as, on a social-professional level, we are pleased with our accomplishments, is also important so that we can avoid manipulation by various means. We will manage to be active in the line of preventing criminal offenses, of detecting acts of violence committed in different environments and sometimes, if we are part of certain structures or entities, we will also be involved in complex processes aimed at combating crimes, maintaining appropriate social dialogue, as well as constitutional order and social order. In the final part of the article, we will present a few challenges raised by migration, with reference to legal rules of criminal law, labour law or included in the special law with legal provisions on preventing and combating domestic violence. Being aware of influence factors such as: race, language, religion, nationality, financial status, level of education and type of skills held, is an important aspect, knowing that social micro-groups change in the context of migration (emigration-immigration).
CYBERBULLYING. THE ISSUE OF SECURITY IN THE ONLINE ENVIRONMENT IN THE AGE OF DIGITIZATION
The paper addresses the phenomenon of cyberbullying as an emerging form of digital violence in the context of accelerating digitalization processes and the extensive use of information technologies. The analysis is carried out from an interdisciplinary perspective – psychological, sociological, legal and technological –, focusing on defining characteristics of online bullying (repetitiveness, anonymity, power imbalance) and its disproportionate impact on victims. The study investigates behavioral typologies, gender and age differences, as well as the relationship between cyberbullying and traditional forms of bullying. From a legal point of view, the research highlights the gaps in the Romanian legislative framework, analyzing in parallel the European standards and the recent jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (the cases Buturugă v. Romania, Volodina v. Russia, M.Ș.D. v. Romania). The findings show the need for an autonomous criminalization of cyberbullying, as well as the adaptation of criminal legislation and public policies to the new digital realities. In this regard, the paper formulates integrated reform proposals – legislative measures, educational and social programs, technological solutions based on artificial intelligence and inter-institutional cooperation mechanisms – with the aim of strengthening the protection of victims and reducing the incidence of the phenomenon. The conclusion underlines the need for a coherent national and European approach, in which legal instruments are complemented by digital education, social responsibility and the active involvement of online platforms in preventing and combating cyberbullying.
NEW DIMENSIONS OF LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY AND LIABILITY IN THE ERA OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES
In the era of accelerated digitalization, characterized by advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence and system automation, traditional legal concepts and principles require urgent adaptation and reinterpretation. Responsibility and legal liability acquire new dimensions: while in classical law liability was closely conected to human will and action, today we often face unprecedented situations in which decisions originate from autonomous systems or opaque algorithms. The attribution of fault and the establishment of liability represent major challenges. Who is responsible when an erroneous decision is generated by an automated system? How can fault be determined if the consequences cannot be associated with a person responsible for them? Can autonomous robots themselves be considered legal subjects? How is liability defined in the case of artificial intelligence generating harmful content? This study aims to analyze how the era of new technologies compels the law to reconfigure fundamental concepts such as responsibility and liability—concepts increasingly disconnected from human will. As technology evolves at an unprecedented pace and new, complex challenges emerge daily from advanced and autonomous artificial intelligence systems, while the normative framework develops timidly at the European level, it becomes the judge’s particularly difficult task to find solutions to these cases and to act with great caution, given the absence of precedents and the continuously changing evolution.
GOOD GOVERNANCE THROUGH OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE: ROMANIA’S LEGAL INSTRUMENTS FOR INSTITUTIONAL CONSOLIDATION IN THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
The article analyzes the ways in which Romania contributes to strengthening institutional resilience and promoting good governance in the Republic of Moldova through Official Development Assistance (ODA). Based on the legal framework provided by Law no. 213/2016 and key bilateral agreements, the study examines Romania’s role as both donor and strategic partner in supporting democratic reform, legislative harmonization, and administrative capacity building. The analysis draws on RoAid’s Annual Plans and Activity Reports from 2023 and 2024 to identify funding directions, thematic areas, implementation methods, and achieved results. The methodology combines documentary analysis with case study research, focusing on projects aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 16, particularly those targeting the justice system, anti-corruption efforts, and institutional modernization. Romania supports these processes by deploying legal experts, providing technical assistance, and implementing training programs for local public administration, thereby reinforcing the rule of law and judicial independence. Findings reveal a coherent approach grounded in soft power diplomacy and development policy coherence. The Republic of Moldova has received more than half of Romania’s bilateral ODA in recent years, confirming Romania’s role not only as a donor, but also as a model and facilitator of institutional reform. In this context, Romanian ODA emerges as a strategic and normative tool, supporting Moldova’s European integration and contributing to Romania’s commitments under the 2030 Agenda and its OECD accession process.
LIKE, SHARE, (IN) SECURITY IN THE AGE OF INFLUENCERS
Influencers occupy a powerful yet highly contested position in contemporary digital society, facing complex ethical, economic, and social challenges. Their impact on the society is huge, only that their messages can amplify polarization, toxicity, and harmful social behaviors. A simple post or story can create chaos for the audience by spreading unrealistic lifestyle content, manipulating the viewers by misinformation and low-quality knowledge. The present study analyzes some of the constraints that the public nowadays needs to face when it comes to choosing and following the content of influencers. Whether it's about the tension between authenticity and commercial dependency based on brand partnerships and platform monetization, maintaining credibility for creators becomes really difficult. Critical thinking of the audience is the only capacity that can separate a sincere message from hidden advertising and personal opinion. Influencers frequently address large and diverse audiences, including minors and vulnerable groups, yet they often operate without formal ethical training or regulatory oversight. The promotion of unrealistic standards raises serious concerns regarding psychological well-being, public health, and consumer safety. Algorithmic pressure, labour precarity, political instrumentalization are other aspects that we have to take into consideration. The content creators' capacity to shape opinions makes them targets for coordinated political messaging, propaganda, and commercial-political hybrid campaigns. Many lack the institutional safeguards, editorial standards, or fact-checking structures required to manage such influence responsibly. Legal and regulatory uncertainty, particularly regarding taxation, advertising transparency, data protection, and consumer rights often lag behind the speed of platform innovation. In the next pages, through some relevant examples from Romanian media, we will observe the most recent cases of the influencers' challenges, that reflect upon fascinated and dependent audiences
THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH: PERSPECTIVES AND CHALLENGES
Artificial Intelligence has become one of the most influential technologies of the 21st century significantly changing our lives, in different fields, such as business, education, and healthcare. The link between the technological development and education is obvious. The appearance of new technological changes has brought along also new challenges leading to a transformation of the teaching and learning process. Probably the most significant from all is the change from teacher-based education to student-centred education. New trends have appeared in the teaching and learning process of English due to the appearance of the Artificial Intelligence-based tools. The present study approaches the perspectives and challenges of teaching and learning English, focusing more on the students’ opinions regarding the introduction of AI-based tools in the teaching process. It is about the introduction of new technology as an everyday tool in the educational process. Do students consider AI-based tools effective in the learning process? Do they consider it useful? The study begins with a systematic literature review. Semi-structures interviews in the qualitative phase represent the instrument for data collection. The respondents have been 40 students, at different profiles, International Business in English – 10students; Accounting – 5 students; Marketing – 5 students; Tourism – 5 students; Finance-Banks – 10 students; Management – 5 students, at the Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Oradea, being in the first and second year of bachelor studies. The results show that the intelligent content enhances the learning experience of the students, fostering interactivity and having a student-centred approach. The students perceive the integration of AI-based tools in the learning process have resulted in better outcomes due to its interactive and engaging character. The personalized experiences have also contributed to better results in the productive skills (speaking and writing) but also receptive skills (reading and listening). The significant integration of technology in what is known as blended learning has resulted in a boost in learning Business English, being more interactive, engaging and effective; it also contributes to the creation of personalized experiences that lead to an improved tailor-content based learning experience. The students feel that their skills (productive skills: speaking and writing and the receptive skills: reading and listening) have improved after a period of using technology- based tools in the teaching and learning process. The significant benefits come along with undeniable limitations. The challenges include: infrastructure requirements, aspects regarding inclusion and equity, the preparation and the readiness of the teacher, ethical aspects, data privacy and unequal accessibility. In the realm of education, the maximizing of the benefits of AI cannot be done without addressing these limitations. This research study can be continued with the teachers’ approach to the subject, the challenges and perspectives of teaching in the AI era.
GEOPOLITICS OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE CONFLICT IN UKRAINE
The paper analyzes in-depth the impact of the conflict in Ukraine on the geopolitics of international relations, highlighting how this war has accelerated structural transformations in the global system. Since Russia's invasion in 2022, the confrontation has produced a series of significant changes in the balance of power, international law norms, and strategic alliance configurations. The study explores the military, economic, energy, and diplomatic dimensions of the conflict, as well as its implications for collective security and the conventional international order. Through an interdisciplinary approach, the paper highlights the return to a logic of realpolitik, the rise of a multipolar world, and the redefinition of national interests in a context marked by uncertainty and global polarization. Finally, possible scenarios for the evolution of the international system are discussed, between institutional reform and systemic confrontation.
UNDERSTANDING THE INSTRUMENTS OF POWER EFFECTS ON THE MILITARY INSTRUMENT OF POWER IN MULTI-DOMAIN OPERATIONS: A CASE STUDY FOR HUMAN INTELLIGENCE FROM A TRAINING PERSPECTIVE
This paper investigates the effects of the diplomatic, informational, and economic instruments of power (IoPs) on the military IoP within Multi-Domain Operations (MDO), focusing on human intelligence (HUMINT) as a case study from a training perspective. It argues that HUMINT professionals must be trained not only in classical collection and influence skills but also in the ability to understand, navigate, and synchronize with other IoPs in a multi-domain environment. To this end, the study evaluates the conceptual foundations of IoPs in MDO, examines their interplay across the continuum of conflict, assesses the role of HUMINT in this context, and outlines training needs and approaches for HUMINT professionals. Ultimately, it seeks to contribute to the development of effective, future-proof training programs that enable NATO and partner personnel to operate effectively in the complex reality of modern conflict.
PROTECTING THE DIGITAL REALM: A CASE STUDY OF ROMANIA'S CYBER SOVEREIGNTY
Cyber sovereignty, a nation's right to govern its cyberspace, has emerged as a critical issue in the 21st century. Indeed, cyber threats increasingly challenge national security worldwide, so cyber sovereignty has become a critical priority for nations seeking to safeguard civilian and military digital domains. Romania, a significant player in European cyber defence, has developed robust policies to safeguard its digital infrastructure and maintain sovereignty in cyberspace. This paper presents a case study of Romania's approach to cyber sovereignty, examining the strategic and legal frameworks that underpin its efforts to secure digital boundaries across civilian and military spheres. Through a detailed examination of Romania's military and national strategy and cyber-related legislative framework published in the last two decades, the research aims to illustrate how Romania addresses the demands of an evolving cybersecurity landscape and defines its cyber boundaries and sovereignty. The findings reveal a lack of well-defined cyber sovereignty in Romania. None of the 22 official strategies and policy, civilian and military, publications published between the years 2002-2021 explicitly defines the term “Cyber Sovereignty” or illustrates Romania's cyber borders; (1) Some refer to the borderless nature of cyberspace (2) others refer to Romanian cyberspace, (3) and few indicate the need to ensure cyber security and defence abroad the country and at the international level. This paper contributes to a deeper understanding of cyber sovereignty and its implementation within Romania’s national strategy and legal context. It emphasises the importance of a well-defined cyber sovereignty in Romania and worldwide.